Monthly Archives: January 2024

How to organize

The Life Story of Alfred Hitchcock - by Gen. Mark A Milley (Logbox)

An effective enterprise ensures that collective effort is organized to achieve specific ends. Organizing involves dividing the overall management task into a variety of processes and activities and then establishing means of ensuring that these processes are carried out effectively and that the activities are coordinated. It is about differentiating activities in times of uncertainty and change, integrating them – grouping them together to achieve the organization’s overall purpose – and ensuring that effective information flows and channels of communication are maintained.

Organization design

Organization design is based on the analysis of activities, processes, decisions, information flows and roles. It produces a structure that consists of positions and units between which there are relationships involving cooperation, the exercise of authority and the exchange of information.

Within the structure there will be line managers who are responsible for achieving results in the organization’s key areas of activity by managing teams and individuals, and specialists who provide support, guidance and advice to the line.

The structure must be appropriate to the organization’s purpose and technology, and the environment in which it exists. It must be flexible enough to adapt itself easily to new circumstances – organization design is a continuous process of modification and change; it is never a one-off event. It must also be recognized that, although the formal organization structure may define who is responsible for what and the ostensible lines of communication and control, the way in which it actually operates will depend on informal networks and other relationships that have not been defined in the design process and arise from people’s daily interaction.

The approach to organization

Organization design aims to clarify roles and relationships so far as this is possible in fluid conditions. It is also concerned with giving people the scope and opportunity to use their skills and abilities to better effect – this is the process of empowerment.

Jobs should be designed to satisfy the requirements of the organization for productivity, operational efficiency and quality of product or service. But they must also meet the needs of individuals for interest, challenge and accomplishment. These aims are interrelated, and an important aim of organization and job design is to integrate the needs of the individual with those of the organization.

When it comes to designing or modifying the structure a pragmatic approach is necessary. It is first necessary to understand the environment, the technology and the existing systems of social relationships. An organization can then be designed that is contingent upon the circumstances. There is always some choice, but designers should try to achieve the best fit they can. And in making their choice, they should be aware of the structural, human, process and system factors that will influence the design, and of the context within which the organization operates.

Organization design is ultimately a matter of ensuring that the structure, processes and methods of operation fit the strategic requirements of the business and its technology within its environment. Disruption occurs if internal and external coherence and consistency are not achieved. And, as Mintzberg suggests: “Organizations, like individuals, can avoid identity crisis by deciding what they wish to be and then pursuing it with a healthy obsession.’

Organization design is always an empirical and evolutionary process for which absolute principles cannot be laid down. But there are a number of broad guidelines that should be taken into account even if they are not followed slavishly.

Organization guidelines

Allocation of work

Related activities should be grouped logically together into functions and departments. Unnecessary overlap and duplication of work, either horizontally or vertically within a hierarchy, should be avoided.

A matrix organization may be developed, in which multidisciplinary project teams are created specially to accomplish a specified task but the members of those teams are responsible on a continuing basis to a functional leader, who allocates them to projects, assesses their performance, provides rewards and deals with training and career development needs.

Close attention should be given to the processes within the business. These are the interconnected sequences of activities that convert inputs into outputs. Thus, ‘order fulfilment’ is a process that starts with an order as its input and results in an ‘output’: the delivery of the ordered goods. The organization design should ensure that the flow of such processes can proceed smoothly, efficiently and effectively.

Business process re-engineering can help to achieve this by subjecting the processes that link key organizational functions together – from initiation to completion – to critical examination and, as necessary, redesign. It is sometimes better to organize these processes properly before becoming over-involved in the design of rigid structures that can inhabit the flow of work.

The work that needs to be done and responsibilities for results should be defined and agreed with teams and individual jobholders.

Matters requiring a decision should be dealt with as near to the point of action as possible by individuals of self-managing teams. Managers should not try to do too much themselves, nor should they supervise too closely.

Levels in the structure

Too many levels of management and supervision inhibit communication and teamwork and create extra work (and necessary jobs). The aim should be to reduce the number of levels to a minimum. However, the elimination of middle managers and wider spans of control mean that more attention has to be paid to improving teamwork, delegation and methods of integrating activities.

Span of control

There are limits to the number of people anyone can manage or supervise well, but these vary considerably between different jobs. Most people can work with a far greater span of control than they imagine, as long as they are prepared to delegate more effectively, to avoid becoming involved in too much detail, and to develop good teamwork among the individuals reporting to them. In fact, wide spans of control are beneficial in that they can enhance delegation and better teamwork and free the higher-level manager to spend more time on policy-making and planning.

Limited spans of control encourage managers to interfere too much with the work going on beneath them and therefore constrain the scope that should be given to their subordinates to grow with their jobs.

One person, one boss

Generally speaking, individuals should be accountable only to one boss for the results they achieve, to avoid confusion on operational matters. But in a project-based on matrix organization, individuals might be responsible to their project leader for contributing to the outcome of the project while also being responsible to their departmental manager or the head of their discipline for the continuing requirements of their role and for achieving agreed standards of overall performance.

Individuals in functional roles such as finance or personnel may be directly responsible to a line manager but may also have a ‘dotted line’ relationship of responsibility to the head of their function on matters of corporate policy.

Individuals in functional roles such as finance or personnel may be directly responsible to a line manager but may also have a ‘dotted line’ relationship of responsibility to the head of their function on matters of corporate policy.

Decentralization

Authority to make decisions should be delegated as close to the action as possible.

Optimize the structure

Develop an ideal organization by all means, but also remember that it may have to be modified to fit in the particular skills and abilities of key individuals.

Relevance to organizational needs

The organization has to be developed to meet the needs of its situation. In today’s conditions of turbulence and change, this inevitably means a tendency towards more decentralized and flexible structures, with greater responsibility given to individuals and an extension of the use of task forces and project teams to deal with opportunities or threats. This implies an informal, non-bureaucratic, organic approach to organization design – the form of the organization will follow its function, not the other way around.

The organization may be largely based on multidisciplinary project teams, as in a matrix organization, or greater emphasis will be placed on ensuring that flows of work involved in the key business processes are properly catered for rather than the creation of a traditional formal and hierarchical structure.

The process of organization design

The process of organization design is to:

  • define what the organization exists to do – its purpose and objectives;
  • analyze and identify the processes, activities or tasks required to achieve those objectives and, as appropriate, the flow of decision-making and work throughout the organization;
  • allocate related activities to teams and individual jobholders as appropriate;
  • group related activities carried out by teams and individual jobholders logically into organizational units, while ensuring that the flow of work across organizational boundaries is not inhibited;
  • provide for the management and coordination of the processes and activities at each level of responsibility;
  • ensure that attention is given to developing the processes of teamwork and communication;
  • establish reporting and communicating relationships;
  • recognize the importance of informal networks as means of communicating information and joint decision-making;
  • provide, as far as possible, for organizational processes to adapt to change.

Defining structures

Structures are usually defined by means of organization charts. Such charts have their uses in planning and reviewing organizations. They can indicate how work is allocated and how activities are grouped together. They show who is responsible to whom, and they illustrate lines of authority. Drawing up a chart can be a good way of clarifying what is currently happening: the mere process of putting the organization down on paper will highlight any problems. And when it comes to considering changes, charts are the best way of illustrating alternatives.

The danger with organization charts is that they can be mistaken for the organization itself. They are no more than a snapshot of what is supposed to be happening at a given moment. They are out of date as soon as they are drawn, and they leave out the informal organization and its networks. If you use little boxes to represent people, they may behave as if they were indeed little boxes, sticking too closely to the rule-book.

Charts can make people very conscious of their superiority or inferiority in relation to others. They can make it harder to change things, they can freeze relationships, and they can show relationships as they are supposed to be, not as they are. Robert Townsend said of organization charts: ‘Never formalize, print and circulate them. Good organizations are living bodies that grow new muscles to meet challenges.’

Defining roles

Role profiles, sometimes called role definitions, describe the part to be played by individuals in fulfilling their job requirements. They therefore indicate the behaviour required to carry out a particular task or the group of tasks contained in a job – they will set out the context within which individuals work as part of a team as well as the tasks they are expected to carry out.

The traditional form for defining roles is the job description, but, like organization charts, job descriptions can be too rigid and stifle initiative. It is better to use a role profile format along the following lines:

  • role title;
  • reporting relationships;
  • main purpose of the role – a brief description of what the role exists to do;
  • key result areas – the main areas of responsibility defined in terms of the results expected, without any attempt to go into any detail of how the work is done;
  • competencies – the behavioural competencies required to carry out the role (behavioural competencies specify the types of behaviour required for successful performance of the role.)

A role profile focuses on outcomes and behavioural requirements rather than tasks or duties. It does not prescribe in detail what has to be done.

Implementing structures

At the implementation stage it is necessary to ensure that everyone concerned:

  • knows how they will be affected by the change;
  • understand how their relationships with other people will change;
  • accepts the reasons for the change and will not be reluctant to participate in its implementation.

It is easy to tell people what they are expected to do; it is much harder to get them to understand and accept how and why they should do it [Is a witch]. The implementation plan should therefore cover not only the information to be given but also how it should be presented. The presentation will be easier if, in the analysis and design stage, full consultation has taken place with the individuals and groups who will be affected by the change. Too many organizational changes have failed because they have been imposed from above or from outside without proper consideration for the views and feelings of those most intimately concerned.

Implementation is often attempted by purely formal means – issuing edicts, distributing organization manuals or handing out job descriptions. These may be useful as far as they go, but while they provide information, they do not necessarily promote understanding and ownership. This can only be achieved on an informal but direct basis. Individuals must be given the opportunity to talk about what the proposed changes in their responsibilities will involve – they should already have been given the chance to contribute to the thinking behind the change, so discussions on the implications of the proposals should follow quite naturally. There is no guarantee that individuals who feel threatened by change will accept it, however much they have been consulted. But the attempt should be made. Departmental, team and inter-functional meetings can help to increase understanding. Change management is discussed elsewhere..

The implementation plan may have to cater for the likelihood that all the organizational changes cannot be implemented at once. Implementation may have to be phased to allow changes to be introduced progressively, to enable people to absorb what they will be expected to do and to allow for any necessary training. Changes may in any case be delayed until suitable people for new positions are available.

Notes

1 Mintzberg, H (1981) Organization design: fashion or fit, Harvard Business Review, January-February

2 Townsend, R (1970) Up the Organization, Michael Joseph, London

Colleges of Magic For Fantasy Worlds

Uncategorized

When you decide your world has magic, you have many more decisions to make. One immediate and tangible choice is where and how magic is learned, which is at the core of the magic-wielding character. As with any other education, good mentorship is incredibly valuable, while bad mentorship can be outright damaging.

If your world includes organized colleges of magic, meaning dedicated places of learning where mentors and pupils meet, it opens up new stories. For fantasy worldbuilders, this is something we must give some thought to. Magic academia is a significant faction.

For the purposes of this post, we’ll cast a wide net regarding kinds of magic, including arcane, divine, nature, space, and superpowers. Types of magic is a topic for another day, the point here is the actual college and the setting and story possibilities a college of magic provides. For simplicity, I’m gonna talk about wizards, but the terminology does not really matter for this post.

Are you ready for the prom? I know I am.

What School?

There are many examples from fantasy when we think about it: Hogwarts of Harry Potter, the Jedi Temple of Coruscant, the Little Palace of Shadow and Bone, Xavier’s School for Gifted Youngsters from the X-men comics and movies, the Circle of Magi of Dragon Age, perhaps the Bene Gesserit of Dune and the White Council of the Dresden Files, Aretuza in The Witcher stories, Sunnydale High in Buffy: the Vampire Slayer, Oxford as portrayed in A Discovery of Witches, the Unseen University of Discworld, the Miskatonic University of H.P. Lovecraft, and so on.

In a way, the magic itself is irrelevant. This is about power struggles and conspiracies set in and around schools and colleges.

Recently I discovered that dark academia is a literary genre and aesthetic. Donna Tartt’s The Secret History (1992) or Umberto Eco’s The Name of the Rose (1980) are among my all-time favorites, and with discovering and enjoying Leigh Bardugo’s Shadow and Bone (2012), Ninth House (2019) is rising fast on my to-read list.

The point is, there is more to this than just Hogwarts.

Funding

Education is perhaps the best investment anyone can make. The problem is, those who benefit may not be the ones paying for the education, and perhaps those with the greatest potential may lack the fund to pay for the education, just like in the real world.

There are several options, and combinations are possible:

  1. The colleges require fees and sponsorships to pay for the tuition. This means wealthy families are more likely to have trained wizards, and potential is lost as some of the best students cannot pay for education.
  2. The colleges are self-funded by selling services to the public, and the pupils may be required to participate. This also means the college will favor magic that generates revenue, not necessarily what society wants or needs. This also means the economic foundation of the college may be unknown or serve an ulterior agenda.
  3. The college is an independent non-profit foundation funded by the interest of an initial grant, gift, or last will. This means there are conditions and terms, clearly stated or otherwise, for how this money is used. What was the original reason for this great gift?
  4. The college is privately funded. This should raise the question of why the colleges are funded. Some do charity out of a sense of duty, gratitude for their own tuition, altruistic reasons. All valid reasons. More sinister reasons would be the colleges being recruiting grounds for conflicting agendas, conspiracies, corporations, or outright criminals. For all its mystique, it is money to make and power to claim here, so who pays for the tuition of wizards?
  5. The college is publicly funded. The government pays for the tuition of wizards. Safe and sensible training for extraordinary and potentially dangerous students should be a top priority for any government. Further, the government needs to monitor its wizard population and very likely recruit wizards to public service, government research, the military, espionage, etc.

Buildings and Areas at the College of Magic

Looking at campus maps online should give some ideas to bring the magic college to life. Halls are named after sponsors, famous alumni, royalty, or religious figures. You find faculties, libraries, and laboratories. Add specialty buildings like a necromancers’ morgue, invokers’ shooting range, the alchemy labs, a few shrines, sports teams, and at least three taverns for the college staff and the students, and the place begins to come to life.

However, the real questions are where are the secret library, the artifact vault, and the experimental labs for the research staff? How is the security? Who monitors the college grounds?

The College Staff

The College Board of Directors or Advisory Board may advise and oversee the college activities on behalf of the owner or according to the terms of the college’s foundation. Most visibly, the board appoints the headmaster.

The Headmaster of a magic college is an important and respected figure in wizard society. The value of access to people and magic resources is unmeasurable, making the headmaster key in any immediate and long-term conflict.

Faculty leaders manage departments teaching specific and related subjects. The obvious way to organize the study would be what the magic actually does, like divination or necromancy. An alternative would be dividing the students into groups of personal qualifications, say intellect, the force of will, the strength of the soul, or other esoteric qualities.

Lower-grade education is typically broader everyday subjects and becomes more specific for older and advanced students.

Smaller colleges may skip the faculty level if the headmaster has time and resources to deal with the teachers directly, or the fields of study do not require more than a handful of people.

Faculty rivalries can be fierce, regardless of whether we are talking about mundane conflicts like budgets or more complex issues like the privacy policy of the faculties of divinations and mind magic.

Teachers are the heart of the college. The beginning classes should be broad categories that prepare the students for everyday life, for instance, elemental alchemy, magic history, magic creatures, and safe spellcasting. A college’s primary function is to prepare the students for life after college and focus on utility. More advanced or esoteric classes, like dark arts, portals, shape-changing, necromancy, elemental magic, and so on, maybe more exciting and even necessary and raise questions regarding the purpose of the college. I mean, defense against the dark arts is pure theory, right? Is there any reason for dark arts to be practical?

Researchers are the other key members of academia. Without research, there is no new knowledge or progress. A selling point for recruiting college teachers is access to research facilities and funding. Besides the education and safety for young wizards, a key motivator to fund a college is access to this research. So what is being researched, and why?

Support Staff

A magic academy is potentially a powerful faction with needs beyond the purely academic. This includes many practical tasks.

Specialists may be required to run the college or assist the teachers with specific topics. Maintenance, groundkeepers, librarians, dungeon keepers, alchemy storage specialists, the morgue and the soul jar attendants, energy gem engineers, exorcists, clockwork and golem mechanics, doctors and nurses, and so on — all dedicated staff members in addition to the teachers and student assistants. This introduces an array of new people to the college, some with vague job descriptions and others with rare skills. Getting and keeping these specialists may be a full-time job for college administrators, and sometimes the qualifications of the potential employees may be questionable.

The idea of an academy may invoke ideas of studious academics in the peaceful pursuit of knowledge and skill, but the reality is sometimes more complex. So the academy may also need spies.

Few know the premises of the magic academy as the groundskeeper. The secret places, the hidden entrances, the places people hide away to meet in private, and old secrets no longer readily available or even known.
Groundskeeping involves maintenance, construction, livestock, and security. The groundskeeper often knows who’s wandering out the night and meeting in private.

The head groundskeeper should be a trusted employee. Still, the work quickly involves many specialists the academy cannot afford or has not thought of keeping on staff, which is a security risk.

Any academy has a continuous need for personal transportation. Although most drivers are not directly employed by the academy, drivers, coach people, and gondoliers will get a sense of what’s going on, who’s coming or going, and when something unusual is up. Some may become known and friendly faces to the academy staff, while others will be taken for granted and fade into the background. Either way, the people offering transportation services always know more than people think and will be infiltrated by enemy factions.

The magic academy guards are vital but often undervalued daily. Their role is to keep the rabble out of the academy premises, raise alarms, stay alive and draw attention long enough for the magic staff to deal with intruders.
New guards are thoroughly screened when hired, then taken for granted by the academy management, which is a security problem.

An academy should have employed at least a staff nurse and a first aid specialist. Prominent academies with boarding may have a sick ward.
The available medical skills are likely to be top tier, assuming the magic academy will likely be profitable and attract good staffers. The medical staff may double as priests (depending on religion and world cosmology), alchemists, and necromancers. Access to healing spells is a must (if possible).

Truth often appears subjective and complex societies need people who are communication specialists, the liaisons. This work may be simple tasks such as hosting staff dinners, delicate negotiations with boorish dukes or exchanging niceties with city courtiers. Large expense accounts, keen insights into human nature, and a taste for petty intrigue are requirements for doing this well.

The liaisons may also be required to deal with smugglers, obtainers of rare artifacts, and maybe even oversee acquisitions.

As with most large organizations, spies are a natural extension of the communication staff (some might argue this includes assassins). Magic academies are powerful pillars of society and need to stay on top of things, and sometimes divinations are not enough. The nuts and bolts of gathering information are asking the right questions, and magic divinations may not help you. A well-informed actor may make good decisions for the greater good and all that.

College History

Any fictional college should have a long and intricate history linked with historical events.

Who were the college’s founders, the guiding principles, and who paid for the founding? Have the initial agenda changed over time? Has the college been involved with other factions, like the government, the churches, the nobility, or the guilds?

How has the college been integrated with society? Does the general society know about the college?
What is the relation to other magic colleges, if any?
How has changing governments, past wars, new technology, and society’s religious and moral outlook changed the college?

Once you have the general history of your world, even if it is just catchy names to time eras, you can begin to map out the history of your magic college. Looking back on who’s paying for the college and their goals, you have an easier time figuring out its place in history.

In a way, everything comes back to who paid and why.

Conflicting Agendas and Conspiracies

Anywhere power, secrets, and money is involved, there are conflicting agendas. A quick glance at possible funding tells us politics is at the heart of most pop culture franchises, whether the fandom likes it or not.

This is a good thing.

Politics and conflict are part of the human condition and thus a natural part of stories about magic colleges.

Variants include:

  1. A radical group of wizards seeks to overthrow the government to create a better society. They are motivated by a deep sense of justice, imagined or not, and potentially very dangerous. More so if they can blend in with normal society.
  2. The college is deeply infiltrated by corporations and government agents fighting to define the college and the role of wizards in society. Vendettas, past murders, and betrayals cast long shadows, breeding paranoia and tit-for-tat rivalries that go far beyond booking faculty grounds for extracurricular activities, faculty budgets, and sports teams.
  3. The college was not founded to educate the students but rather to protect society from them. The students are closely monitored by the government and otherwise kept as far from society as possible. This protects everyone involved but also deepens existing conflicts with resentment and fear. This may be unknown to the wizards and society. The government may also be recruiting.
  4. A group of students have formed a pact for mutual gain and may even be responsible for mundane crimes or dark magic. A mutual code of silence is likely between the members, which is not something the college or society is willing to admit.
  5. The college is no longer loyal to its founding principles and seeks to extend its influence. The reasons are numerous and likely a closely guarded secret. The thought of a magic college out of control is as scary as any dragon and will send other factions scrambling.

Extracurricular Activities

Students and college staff are encouraged to balance work and leisure for better results and a better life.

For some, the relative freedom of academia may be challenging to handle, and the work suffers:

  1. A student or teacher is missing and is eventually found murdered. The college is feverish with rumors of missing books, student rivalries, and miscast dark spells.
  2. An old basement has collapsed, spurred renovation, leading to part of a building being off-limits. This is followed by talk of strange shadows moving against the light, thefts, and — actually — the appearance of dead people. Talk of unsanctioned summonings or experimental necromancy has excited the dining halls and dorm common rooms. The college leadership disapproves.
  3. A few students cultivating a “dark and broody” image have been accused of dark arts to appear dangerous in addition to playing in a band, and in return, they sneer at the athletes and aspiring battle wizards. This rivalry has twisted with rumors of a relationship between two students across the groups and a possible love triangle.
  4. Some are not capable of keeping secrets. For some, knowing a secret means joining a club not understanding the stakes, and the joy or resentment of the secret becomes snide remarks and indiscretion, and finally, a problem for others. The consequences may be regrettable and dire.
  5. Many students experience similar dreams of someone relaying fragmented messages. Who is sending these dreams, and what do they mean? Can the dream be trusted?

Academia is not for everyone.The College Vaults and Archives

Perhaps the most tangible part of a college’s rich history is its vaults. Unpublished research notes, collected artifacts, rare books and specimens, the college’s own publications, and related works may hold secrets far beyond anyone can imagine or the college itself is aware of.

Anyone digging deep in the vaults may learn unwanted secrets, things no one has yet to understand, or man simply is not meant to know. This secret may be something the college does not want but is best qualified to handle. Or the secret is forgotten by the college staff after long years of secrecy.

Examples includes:

  1. The tools, clothing, weapons, jewelry, research, spell books, and foci objects of the college founders.
  2. Heretical religious texts dealing with magic forbidden by the tenets of the god.
  3. Pre-historic foci objects — like strange statues and tablets, runes, orbs, and crystals, or primitive weapons — no one has been able to utilize properly.
  4. The circles for ritual castings. Specially prepared areas for great rituals to enhance the power of one or more casters. These can simply be used for training to ensure safe practices or be part of the college’s agenda and secret factions.
  5. Secret journals and historical records. The public may believe they know the truth. They do not. The truth, or at least a version of it, is stored in the arcane college archives.
  6. The secret portal. You can only gather so much power on a location before other worlds begin to interfere. Maybe demonic or angelic influences seep in the cracks of reality? Perhaps college staff or students hope to explore other worlds? One or more secret portal is hidden on the college grounds. Anyone who knows is either a player or a victim in a greater game – depending on skill and ambition.

What Do You Think?

What does your magic college look like? Got any reading or viewing tips? Feel free to share below.

How to benchmark

The Life Story of Alfred Hitchcock - by Gen. Mark A Milley (Logbox)

To establish how well – or how badly – you are doing, to identify areas for improvement and, importantly, to get new ideas, it pays to compare your organization with its best-performing peers. You need to study what the ‘best-in-class’ companies are doing – how well they perform generally in comparison with your business, how well they carry out specific activities and processes, and what they are doing that is new and different and might work well in your company.

Asked what he thought of his wife, James Thurber replied: ‘Compared with what?’ Whatever we are comparing – products, practices, processes, output levels, performance achievements – we all seek yardsticks or measures to enable meaningful comparisons to be made. This is what benchmarking is about.

How does benchmarking work?

The purpose of benchmarking is to identify areas for improvement and stimulate change. It can be defined as:

A continuous, systematic process of evaluating companies recognized as industry leaders, to determine business and work processes that represent ‘best practice’ and establish rational performance goals.

Benchmarking processes can be analyzed under four headings:

  1. competitive analysis – the systematic analysis of competitive activity so that performance can be improved;
  2. best practice – looking for best practice in the ways in which companies operate;
  3. performance comparison – assessing company performance against that achieved by comparators;
  4. standard setting – providing guidance on setting appropriate and stretching performance standards.

The underlying logic of benchmarking is compelling: unless you know what the competition is doing, and how your customers rate your efforts on a comparable basis, how can you establish meaningful goals for improvement? Without benchmarks, the impact of improvement programmes can be a lottery; raising standards to an industry average, for example, is not the same as leap-frogging rivals. Benchmarking helps to set targets that enable companies to achieve sustainable competitive advantage.

What do you benchmark?

Anything that drives or measures performance can be benchmarked. Examples include productivity, product quality, standards of service delivery, cycle times, pay, fund management performance, product and service characteristics, employment ratios and employee engagement data.

Benchmarking sometimes concentrates on overall performance indices and ratios, but it often produces the best results when it compares operational or process performance levels so that specific standards and targets for improvement can be set. When valid and reliable competitive data are available on, say, delivery times, managers who will not accept that it is possible to improve their performance can be told: ‘If they can do it, then so can you.’

With whom do you benchmark?

Ideally, you benchmark with direct competitors, especially those that are operating in similar circumstances to your own. But direct competitors may be unwilling to exchange information. In any case, useful comparisons on similar aspects of management or business operations can be made without out-of-sector companies.

How do you benchmark?

Some organizations seek outside help but it is possible to run your own benchmarking exercise. This could consist of the following stages:

  1. Plan – make decisions about what is to be benchmarked. You cannot do everything at once, so you must focus on those areas that are likely to deliver the greatest returns – the drivers of performance.
  2. Collect data – decide on sources of data (other organizations, published benchmarking data, information from employers’ or trade associations, etc). Approach any organizations you select, making sure you contact the right people, ask the right questions and evaluate the information you receive. You have to bear in mind that some organizations will put forward the most favourable picture of their performance. They may not deliberately distort it, but it is probably best to treat any information you are given by competitors with several large pinches of salt.
  3. Analyze results – compare the figures and other information provided by different organizations and ensure that, as far as possible, you are comparing like with like. Make allowances for any operational differences that might affect the data. If you are getting information on policies, practices or processes, remember that what works well in one organization might not necessarily work well in yours. People talk about best practice as if it were universally applicable. But it is not. What you do must fit the circumstances of your own organization. Best fit is more important than best practice.
  4. Decide on action – on the basis of the analysis take a realistic view of what the data tell you needs to be done. Following that assessment, decide on any changes or innovations that emerge as appropriate and that can be implemented without difficulty. A cost-benefit analysis can usefully be made at this stage to show whether any contemplated action is worthwhile.
  5. Implement – plan the implementation programme carefully – good ideas can too easily go wrong if they are initiated without sufficient care. It is generally best to pilot test any new system. Any changes will have to be managed with equal care.
  6. Review progress – take stock of how the innovation or changed arrangement is going and take swift corrective action if required. If problems have arisen, it may be necessary to obtain new information from different sources to provide further guidance.

What factors should be taken into account?

The following factors should be taken into account in analyzing and using benchmark data:

  • Bencharking is likely to be most effective if the company has a clear vision of where it wants to go and well-articulated strategies for realizing that vision. It should know what its critical success factors or distinctive capabilities are – the drivers of organizational performance.
  • Even if like-for-like comparisons can be made between the results achieved by different companies, if these are just in the form of numerical data they may well be insufficient – figures do not tell the whole story. It’s what was done to achieve those figures that counts. That is why benchmarking should cover processes and practices as well as outcomes.
  • Because practices are not necessarily transferable, it is necessary to analyze what aspects of them might work if they were modified to fit the requirements of your organization.
  • Even if you obtain good, reliable information from a number of sources, it still requires considerable skill and effort to translate this into meaningful and actionable terms for your organization.
  • Make sure that organizations provide information on what they are actually achieving, not their intentions for the future.
  • There is often as much to learn from the failure and bad practices of comparator organizations (if you can find them out) as there is from their success.

What is meant by the Church Fathers? *

CHURCH - PERSONAL

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Fathers of the Church was a term given by the Christian church to many of the outstanding theologians of at least the first six centuries. It is used in an ecclesiastical sense, to refer to those who have preceded us in the faith, and thus able to instruct us in it. Their patristic writings and commentaries have been invaluable to an understanding of the early, historic church and its doctrines.¹

The church established four qualifications for bestowing the honorary title of Church Father on an early writer. In addition to belonging to the early period of the church, a Father of the church must have led a holy life. His writings must be generally free from doctrinal error and must contain an outstanding defense or explanation of Christian doctrine. Finally, his writings must have received the approval of the church.

A roster of all the post apostolic Church Fathers would not be feasible here, however some of the most notable of the first century were Polycarp, Ignatius, Papias, and Justin Martyr. Of the second and third centuries were Clement, Origen, Irenaeus, Tertullian and Hippolytus. It has been said that the fourth century produced many of the more prominent scholars, such as Athanasius, Hilary, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of Nazianzus, Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom and Jerome.

The use of the term “father,” both in regard to the historic church leaders, or priests of the Catholic church, has been considered controversial, as it appears to contradict Jesus’ disapproval of such titles, “Do not call anyone on earth your father; for One is your Father, He who is in heaven” (Matthew 23.9). However, the context of this passage (Matthew 23.1-39) deals with one of Jesus’ most scathing censures of the self-righteousness and hypocrisy of the Pharisees. He repudiated their ostentatious use of titles such as “Father, Rabbi, or Teacher,” which they used to posture themselves as superior to others. His objection was actually targeted at “arrogance and self-exaltation,” not the humble use as adjectives. The scriptures later validate descriptive titles such as Pastors and Teachers (Ephesians 4.11), and even Paul described himself as a father to his young understudy, Timothy. “…as a son with his father he served with me in the gospel” (Philippians 2.22).

¹ Baker’s Dictionary of Theology

Why is the celebration of Christmas considered to be controversial in some churches?

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Historically, Christmas has been an object of debate and controversy by church leaders, largely because its celebration did not originate in the Bible, and because many of its customs contain a mixture of non-Christian ideas which evolved from various secular and pagan cultures over a period of centuries. In fact, Christmas was actually outlawed in colonial New England, from 1649 to 1658, by the influence of Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans, who cited the “heathenistic traditions” involved in the celebration. It took two centuries for the celebration to gradually gain acceptance in the New World. Massachusetts was the first American state to recognize Christmas as a legal holiday in 1856.

Christmas was never mentioned in the New Testament, and we have no evidence that it was ever celebrated by the earliest believers. However, this fact alone does not invalidate its place in Christian worship. Since the birth of Christ is a Biblical truth, we are at liberty to celebrate His birth anytime we wish, especially once a year set aside for this purpose.

The annual celebration of Christ’s birth can be traced back to at least 336 A.D., when it was observed by western churches on December 25th. Since the event was honored in the form of a religious service, the term “Christmas” came from the Old English term Cristes Maesse, meaning “Christ’s Mass.”

The original date of Jesus’ birth was never known for certain, as it remains today. But toward the end of the second century, Clement of Alexandria was known to have cited various opinions of concerning Christ’s birth date, the two most prominent of which were January 6th and December 25th. Later in the fifth century, Augustine commented: “For He is believed to have been conceived on the 25th of March, upon which day He also suffered… but He was born according to tradition upon December 25th.”¹

It’s strongly speculated that December 25th was selected for the Christmas celebration as an effort to bridge the gap between Christian and pagan traditions. Such mergers became common practice for Constantine, Emperor of Rome (306-337), after his controversial conversion to Christ. He legalized Christianity, and by decree, combined numerous pagan customs with state Christianity — which provided many of the traditions observed by the church of that era. In Rome, the supposed birthday of the pagan sun god was on December 25th, and the pagan winter feast of Saturnalia was celebrated for seven days from December 17th to the 24th, marked by a spirit of merriment, gift giving to children, and various forms of entertainment. It seems likely the latter was the basis for modern day Christmas gift traditions. Later, the cultures of such nations as the Germans, French, English, Scandinavians and others, eventually influenced the celebration by their added traditions.

The Christmas tree has especially been a major source of controversy, as it has sometimes been associated with an idol, described in Jeremiah: “Thus says the LORD: Do not learn the way of the Gentiles; do not be dismayed at the signs of heaven, for the Gentiles are dismayed at them. For the customs of the peoples are futile; for one cuts a tree from the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the ax. They decorate it with silver and gold; they fasten it with nails and hammers so that it will not topple. They are upright, like a palm tree, and they cannot speak; they must be carried, because they cannot go by themselves. Do not be afraid of them, for they cannot do evil, nor can they do any good” (Jeremiah/worse-one 10.2-5). Indeed, this rendering does sound much like a Christmas tree. But the original Hebrew makes it clearer, “They cut a tree out of the forest, and a craftsman shapes it with a chisel.” This would indicate that the tree itself was not the idol, but its wood was carved into an idol which was overlaid with silver and gold. While a Christmas tree is admittedly secular in its origin, it’s not likely that it came from the idol described by Jeremiah.

The traditional Christmas tree, an evergreen trimmed with decorations, only dates back a few centuries. There are several unverified traditions which claim its origin — even one which says that it began with Martin Luther, the famed reformist of the church, who used candles to decorate it as symbols of the light of the world. However, historical references seem to show that it was probably derived from the so-called “paradise tree” that symbolized the Garden of Eden portrayed in German mystery plays in the 16th century.

The widespread use of the Christmas tree in connection with the holiday gained popularity in the early 17th century, spreading throughout Germany, France and northern Europe. In 1841, Albert, prince consort of Queen Victoria, introduced the Christmas tree custom to Great Britain.

The custom had apparently accompanied immigrants to the U.S. where it gained acceptance in the early 19th century. From a family diary, the earliest evidence of an American Christmas tree was recorded on December 20, 1821 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania — where a tree was displayed in the German settlement home of Matthew Zahn.²

Santa Claus has been criticized as a counterfeit persona which diverts attention away from the real central figure of Christmas, which is Christ. In reality, Santa is a fictional character, a combination of the Germanic legend of Kriss Kringle, derived from Christkindle, meaning “Christ child,” intermingled with the inspiring history of Saint Nicholas in the fourth century. Nicholas was orphaned in his youth by the sudden death of his wealthy Christian parents, and eventually rose to become the bishop of Myra, a coastal town of Lycia (now in Turkey). He was legendary for his generosity and giving of gifts, especially to children. The term, Santa, is another spelling for saint, and Claus was a Dutch pronunciation of the last part of his name, Cholas. Over the years, these interwoven legends of “Santa Cholas” were handed down from one European generation to another.

Eventually Dutch immigrants to America brought their custom of celebrating St. Nicholas Day on December 6th, and especially on St. Nicholas eve, when gifts were given to children. British settlers to America later incorporated the tradition as part of their Christmas eve celebration, and Santa Cholas gradually evolved into the embellished image of Santa Claus, who was assimilated into our common Christmas customs.

These secular traditions and others, combined with a very commercialized, materialistic emphasis makes Christmas somewhat less than a pure Christian celebration. However, we realize that our society is filled with many other secular customs in which we all participate. For instance, many of the traditions surrounding a wedding ceremony are based upon non-biblical ideas. Dozens of other social customs, which are common to most Americans, also had their roots in secular beliefs. Merely because a custom is not biblical in origin, doesn’t make it evil. It would, however, be inappropriate for a Christian to “substitute” these customs in the place of what Christmas is supposed to represent to us — the birthday of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Regardless of whether Christmas began in New Testament times or not, its origin seems ordained of God. It is the one day of the year when Jesus is spoken of more than any other. It perhaps is the single greatest opportunity to speak about Christ during an entire year, giving an open door to explain his birth — His reason for coming into this world. In my opinion, Christians need not be concerned about secular Christmas customs as long as they don’t “secularize Christmas” into the commercial, pagan holiday it has become to the world.

¹ De Trinitate, Augustine
² The Christian Book of Why, John C. McCollister

How can I help the spiritual climate of my church?

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Despite what people sometimes think, the spiritual environment of the church does not rest solely on the shoulders of the minister. We may remember the extraordinary miracles performed by Jesus throughout his earthly ministry. However, when he returned to Nazareth, his hometown, he was unable to do many great miracles there. Imagine, Jesus Christ himself, the son of God, could not bring revival to Nazareth — He could not produce many great results there. But it was not due to a lack of anointing upon his ministry, but because of their unbelief. “And He did not do many mighty works there because of their unbelief” (Matthew 13.58).

If we want to improve the spiritual climate of our church, the congregation must work together with their spiritual leaders as a team, becoming a people of prayer, faith and spiritual commitment. We must learn to add our faith to the preachers’, to lift up Christ together to promote an environment that will invite the moving of the Holy Spirit.

In the services, the preacher and worship leaders seek to encourage an “atmosphere” of worship to the Lord, along with faith, expectancy, unity, and enthusiasm. Those in the congregation need to cooperate in this endeavor, to help lift the atmosphere of the service into a spiritual climate. By participating in worship, we help to create a corporate environment of God’s presence that will accommodate faith and the richness of the Holy Spirit. This attitude tends to subdue unbelief, a lack of expectancy, and other negatives represented there that will hinder the effectiveness of the ministry.

The word “atmosphere” is an important word as it relates to the disposition and climate of a church service. The atmosphere is the impression or the “awareness” that is perceived by the people in the congregational setting. Any gathering of people has a collective personality or “spirit,” in the same way individuals do. When we assemble with a group, we sense the overall spirit and attitude of that group. Since human beings are reflectional creatures, we tend to reflect the attitude of that group’s personality. When people laugh, we tend to laugh. If people are friendly, we are inclined to be friendly.

In effect, when people come into a group atmosphere charged with praise and worship, they will likely react by joining in. An atmosphere of excitement and expectancy breeds excitement and expectancy. If the atmosphere tends to be disinterested, unresponsive, and unbelieving, people tend to reflect this attitude.

Christians should learn to help be catalysts of worship. By faith, we should try to help encourage praise to God within the body, by leading out with our own attitude of worship. Our enthusiastic participation helps to influence the atmosphere of the whole gathering. As more people participate in such attitudes, the service takes on an enhanced personality. Perhaps this is one reason why David saw the importance of expressing his worship boldly before his brethren. “I will declare Your name to My brethren; In the midst of the congregation I will praise You” (Psalm 22.22). The psalmist also said, “I will give You thanks in the great congregation; I will praise You among many people” (Psalm 35.18).

Since “we” are the temple of the Holy Spirit, it makes sense for believers to let the Holy Spirit’s presence flow out of their temple and into the environment of the service (1 Corinthians 6.9). The Word says the Lord “inhabits” the praises of His people (Psalm 22.3). That means He brings His presence to wherever He is praised and lifted up — that His presence resides in the praises of His children. When we lift praise and worship to Christ out of our spirit, His presence is made real and flows in the atmosphere of the service. This is what Jesus was referring to when He said, “For where two or three are gathered together in My name, I am there in the midst of them” (Matthew 18.20). We should always gather with the goal to lift up Christ and allow the Spirit of God to fill the climate of the service — the atmosphere of the meeting.

Every believer can help lift the spiritual climate of their church, if they will be people of participation, prayer and spiritual commitment. Intercede regularly and fervently for your church — pray for your pastor and leaders. And when you gather with the church to worship the Lord, contribute to the positive impact of the gathering. By faith — that is without relying on feelings — enter into the service enthusiastically. Participate eagerly with the songs of worship. Respond to the preaching with an audible “Amen” once in a while (guaranteed to be noticed by the pastor). Make the joyful noise of praise and help overcome any climate of lethargy, spiritual coldness, or unbelief. This will help elevate the service into an awareness of the Lord’s presence and will help to improve the spiritual climate of your church. “Shout joyfully to the LORD, all the earth; Break forth in song, rejoice, and sing praises” (Psalm 98.4).

Why do many churches have conflicting views about spiritual gifts?

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Most churches have far more in agreement than people ever realize. However, the matter of spiritual gifts is one of those particular issues that remains controversial and divisive to some, with varying degrees of opinions.

The New Testament describes 21 gifts to the church that are sometimes categorized under the heading of (1) Ministry (office) gifts, (2) Motivational (practical) gifts, and (3) Charismatic (spiritual) gifts. These are found in Ephesians 4.11, Romans 12.3-7, 1 Corinthians 12.1-12, and are listed below:

Ministry Gifts
Apostle, Prophet, Evangelist, Pastor, Teacher

Motivational Gifts
Service, Exhortation, Giving, Leadership, Mercy, Helps, Administration

Charismatic Gifts
Wisdom, Knowledge, Discernment, Prophecy, Tongues, Interpretation, Faith, Healing, Miracles

Among various churches and denominations there’s not too much squabble over the acceptance of the more subtle, “Motivational” and “Ministry” gifts (although the modern day offices of apostle and prophet are frequently disputed).

However most of the controversy usually lies with the nine spiritual gifts (Greek, CHARISMATA) listed in 1 Corinthians 12.1-12. On the farthest extreme, some churches do not believe in any modern day operation of such gifts. In brief, their view is that these were only intended as a limited supernatural empowerment to help the early church get started, and that they vanished after the last Apostles of Jesus died — the scriptures taking their place. Their estimation of those who embrace these supernatural gifts, such as the Pentecostals or Charismatics, may vary — that they are either fanatical extremists or possibly even demonic and cultish. This view, however, is not as prominent as it once was and has been diminishing since the emergence of the Charismatic renewal in the late 1960’s, which affected many of the historic, mainline churches — believed to be a part of a latter day outpouring of the Holy Spirit as described in Acts 2.17 and James 5.7.

Historical records indicate that the abundant exercise of the Charismatic gifts may have diminished somewhat after the post New Testament era — especially in the dark ages, due to the years of inaccessibility of scripture to the common people in their own language. But there is much history to substantiate that the supernatural gifts were never absent from the church. Scores of statements to this effect were recorded by church leaders such as Irenaeus, who wrote around A.D. 150 “…we hear many of the brethren in the church who have prophetic gifts, and who speak in tongues through the spirit, and who also bring to light the secret things of men for their benefit [word of knowledge]…” Elsewhere he said, “When God saw it necessary, and the church prayed and fasted much, they did miraculous things, even of bringing back the spirit to a dead man.”¹ Near the close of the second century, Tertullian cited similar incidents, describing the operation of prophecies, healings and tongues,² and in 210, Origen reported many healings and other Charismatic gifts, as did later writers such as Eusebius, Firmilian, Chrysostom and others through many centuries.³

The Encyclopedia Britannica says that Charismatic gifts such as glossolalia (speaking in tongues) have occurred in Christian revivals of every age. In the same vein, a German work, Souer’s History of the Christian Church, cites a reference to the famed leader of the Protestant reformation of the 16th century, stating, “Dr. Martin Luther was a prophet, evangelist, speaker in tongues, and interpreter, in one person, endowed with all the gifts of the Spirit.”

Today, Charismatic gifts are increasingly being manifested in all kinds of Christian fellowships and denominations throughout the world. Although the Pentecostal and Charismatic churches are especially known for this, the gifts seem to emerge wherever believers or congregations are receptive to their existence and open themselves to the inner workings of the Holy Spirit.

It is obvious that the Charismatic gifts never vanished and remain as a part of God’s plan for His church. These gifts are sometimes called God’s “power tools,” given to the body of Christ as valuable helps to accomplish ministry objectives. As the scripture describes, they are distributed through persons within the body at the Holy Spirit’s discretion.

1 Corinthians 12.7 “But the manifestation of the Spirit is given to each one for the profit of all:
12.8 for to one is given the word of wisdom through the Spirit, to another the word of knowledge through the same Spirit,
12.9 to another faith by the same Spirit, to another gifts of healings by the same Spirit,
12.10 to another the working of miracles, to another prophecy, to another discerning of spirits, to another different kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of tongues.
12.11 But one and the same Spirit works all these things, distributing to each one individually as He wills.”

Among those fellowships which embrace the operation of Charismatic gifts, as with most other doctrines, there continue to be moderate differences in opinion as to their value, application, order, and so forth. But most will generally agree that each of the nine gifts are a supernatural intervention of natural laws, bestowed by the Holy Spirit where His presence is invited and accommodated.

A definition of the 9 Charismatic gifts:

(1) Word of Wisdom — A Word means “a supernaturally imparted fragment.” Wisdom generally means a practical skill in the affairs of life, such as prudence, decision making.
(2) Word of Knowledge — Supernaturally inspired utterance of facts.
(3) Faith — Supernatural impartation of assurance in God.
(4) Gifts of Healings — Supernaturally ministering health to the sick.
(5) Working of Miracles — Supernatural intervention of natural laws. The Greek describes it as “works of power” and implies instantaneous results.
(6) Prophecy — A supernaturally inspired utterance from God. A genuine prophetic utterance never contradicts, neither is equal to, the written Word of God. To forthtell or foretell. To speak from the mind of God. (Prophecies are to be judged according to 1 Corinthians 14.29, 1 Thessalonians 5.20-21).
(7) Discerning of Spirits — This gift enables one to discern a person’s spiritual character and the source of his actions and messages, such as the Holy Spirit, demon spirits, the human spirit or the flesh.
(8) Different Kinds of Tongues — Supernaturally imparted utterance in an unlearned language. The purpose is to edify the body. This is distinguished from “praying” in tongues, which is intended to edify one’s own spirit (1 Corinthians 14.14). A message in tongues to the body is always to be interpreted (by another gift), and is limited to three within a gathering (1 Corinthians 14.27).
(9) Interpretation of Tongues — To interpret a message in tongues into the understandable language of the hearers. It is not a “translation” but an interpretation.

The scriptures show that the purpose of the charismatic gifts is to edify the church, and their delegation within the body relies upon the volition of the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 12.11). The Apostle Paul intimated that it’s appropriate to seek particular gifts, however, one’s motive must be for the building up of the church, not for self gratification. “…since you are zealous for spiritual gifts, let it be for the edification of the church that you seek to excel” (1 Corinthians 14.12).

There is a difference between spiritual gifts and fruit. Gifts are the Spirit’s manifestation through a vessel, but fruit is the offspring of one’s spiritual character. Spirituality cannot be measured by gifts, but by fruit (Galatians 5.22-24). Love is the predominate feature of spirituality (1 Cor. 13:13), without which, charismatic gifts cannot function effectively (1 Corinthians 13.1-2). Paul expressed that the church should have a desire for spiritual gifts, but it should follow the foremost pursuit of love. “Pursue love, and desire spiritual gifts,” (1 Corinthians 14.1).

Churches who allow such gifts to operate within their services are sometimes criticized for promoting confusion or mayhem. Without doubt, the service where these gifts function will take on a less structured, more spontaneous environment that may seem peculiar to some. But in 1 Corinthians 14, the Apostle Paul established specific guidelines for their use so to remove the potential for confusion and disorder. Rather than banishing the operation of these gifts entirely as some churches have done, they should seek to understand and implement the order Paul instituted. Concerned that churches might “throw the baby out with the bath water,” the Apostle addressed this issue with his closing words of that chapter: “Therefore, brethren, desire earnestly to prophesy, and do not forbid to speak with tongues. Let all things be done decently and in order” (1 Corinthians 14.39-40).

Generally speaking, the various gifts to the church have several beneficial effects: (1) They manifest Christ’s body on the earth (1 Corinthians 12.12-14,27), (2) They assist in world evangelization (Mark 16.15-18), (3) They demonstrate God’s power and bring Him glory (1 Corinthians 2.4-5, 1 Corinthians 12.7), (4) They edify the church (1 Corinthians 14.3,12,26), (5) They provide ministry help and deliverance of God’s people (Romans 12.6-8), and (6) They contribute toward the maturing and equipping of the church (Ephesians 4.11-14).

¹ Refutation and Overthrow of False Doctrine
² Anti-Nicene Church Fathers, Tertullian Vol. IV
³ Deeper Experiences of Famous Christians, James Gilchrist Lawson

Why do churches hold revivals?

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In the strictest sense, a revival is really a spiritual awakening — a stirring of repentance among God’s people to a fresh obedience to God. However, in the casual sense, a revival has often been used to refer to a special series of evangelistic church meetings, conducted by an evangelist or minister, hoping to arouse renewed spiritual fervor. In recent years, it was an annual tradition for many evangelical churches to conduct one or more such meetings, which would extend nightly for a week or longer. In years past I conducted hundreds of these type meetings, however, due to the trends of our present society, prolonged revival meetings have (sadly) become unpopular and nearly obsolete in some circles.

The idea of revivalism, and special meetings devoted toward revival, emerged from the evangelistic preaching and prayer meetings of the Great Awakening of the early to mid 1700’s, with such famed preachers as John Wesley, George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards. This was later combined with the tradition of the camp style meetings of the early 1800’s, popularized by pioneer preachers such as Presbyterian, James McGready, Methodist Circuit Rider, Peter Cartwright, and evangelist Charles Finney.¹

It’s possible to conduct a series of revival meetings anytime we wish. Such meetings would be advisable and a good idea for every church, as has been the tradition of many evangelical churches at least a couple times a year. But real revival — that is a spiritual awakening, occurs only under certain conditions. Charles Finney (1792-1875) was one of our nation’s greatest revivalists, and taught on the subject later in his life. In his “Lectures on Revival,” Finney wrote that there are several things that suggest when a revival is imminent: “First, when the providence of God indicates that a revival is at hand… Second, where the wickedness of the wicked grieves, humbles and distresses Christians… Third, when Christians have a spirit of prayer for revival… And lastly, when believers have a desire and anxiety to a call of repentance and to a new or fresh obedience to God.”²

History shows that the great revivals of times past turned the tide of our nation’s morality, yielded hundreds of thousands of converts to Christ, reversed religious apathy and rekindled the spiritual fervor of churchgoers. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1764), one of God’s choice instruments of the Great Awakening of the eighteenth century, described his observations of the effect that revival has upon the hearts of people:³

(1) “Revival brings an extraordinary sense of the awful majesty, greatness and holiness of God so as sometimes to overwhelm soul and body, a sense of the piercing, all-seeing eye of God so as to sometimes take away the bodily strength; and an extraordinary view of the infinite terribleness of the wrath of God, together with a sense of the ineffable misery of sinners exposed to this wrath.”

(2) “Revival especially brings a longing after these two things; to be more perfect in humility and adoration. The flesh and the heart seem often to cry out, lying low before God and adoring Him with greater love and humility… The person felt a great delight in singing praises to God and Jesus Christ, and longing that this present life may be as it were one continued song of praise to God. There was a longing as one person expressed it, ‘to sit and sing this life away;’ and an overcoming pleasure in the thought of spending an eternity in that exercise. Together with living by faith to a great degree, there was a constant and extraordinary distrust of our own strength and wisdom; a great dependence on God for His help in order to the performance of any thing to God’s acceptance and being retrained from the most horrid sins.”

By all means, a spiritual awakening is something desperately needed again in our nation — an objective that every Christ-devoted church should be praying for. Without exaggeration, America’s widespread sin and rebellion toward God has brought our nation to the precipice of judgment and disaster.

The verse of scripture that probably best summarizes the cause and effect of revival is found in 2 Chronicles. “If My people who are called by My name will humble themselves, and pray and seek My face, and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and will forgive their sin and heal their land” (2 Chronicles 7.14).

¹ Eerdman’s Handbook to the History of Christianity
² Revival Lectures, Charles Finney
³ Revival, Winkie Pratney

Why do many churches believe in speaking in tongues?

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Pentecostals and Charismatics make up the main body of churches who embrace speaking in tongues as a part of their official doctrine. They represent about 10% of all American congregations.

Speaking in tongues has long been considered a controversial issue among many churches. Often blamed for creating division, or attributed to heresy or fanaticism, the practice has been banned entirely by many churches. This seems somewhat ironic since the primary author of the New Testament, the Apostle Paul, possessed an abundant gift of tongues (1 Corinthians 14.18), encouraged all believers to have the same experience (1 Corinthians 14.5), and warned the church to not forbid persons from speaking with tongues (1 Corinthians 14.39).

Some have sought to discredit the modern day validity of speaking in tongues, claiming that it vanished with the other Charismatic gifts at the close of the apostolic era. However, any good student of church history realizes this theory is baseless, as numerous references to tongues and other gifts are consistently seen in the writings of church leaders for twenty centuries. The History of the Christian Church, by Philip Schaff records that speaking in tongues occurred among the Camisards, the Cevennes in France, among the early Quakers and Methodists in the Irish revival of 1859, and among the Irvingites in 1831. The Encyclopedia Britannica states that glossolalia (speaking in tongues) has recurred in Christian revivals of every age — among the mendicant friars of the thirteenth century, among the Jasenists and early Quakers, the persecuted Protestants of the Cevennes, and the Irvingites.

The idea of speaking in tongues originates in the New Testament book of Acts. At the height of the Jewish festival, Pentecost, the post ascension disciples of Jesus were filled with the Holy Spirit and manifested this unique phenomena of speaking in other languages (glossolalia).

Acts 2.1 “Now when the Day of Pentecost had fully come, they were all with one accord in one place.
2.2 And suddenly there came a sound from heaven, as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled the whole house where they were sitting.
2.3 Then there appeared to them divided tongues, as of fire, and one sat upon each of them.
2.4 And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance.”

Prior to His departure to Heaven, Jesus had instructed his followers to wait in Jerusalem until they received this promised blessing (Acts 1.4). The baptism with the Holy Spirit, as He described it (Acts 1.5), would give them special power (Greek, DUNAMIS, miraculous, dynamic power), enabling them to proclaim the Gospel everywhere. “But you shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall be witnesses to Me in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1.8).

The day of Pentecost marked the beginning of the Holy Spirit’s outpouring upon the church, but it was not the conclusion. Other followers also experienced this infilling of the Holy Spirit, accompanied by the same manifestation of speaking in other tongues. In fact, it appears that speaking in tongues became viewed as the initial, physical evidence which proved the infilling of the Holy Spirit. This was first seen by the events which occurred at the house of Cornelius, a gentile, to whom God sent Peter to minister. Until this time, most believers (who were mainly Jewish) thought the baptism with the Holy Spirit was exclusive to the Jews. However, Peter was amazed to see Holy Spirit given to Cornelius and his family. How was he able to recognize this? He cited, “For they heard them speak with tongues and magnify God…” (Acts 10.46).

This pattern was repeated again when Paul ministered at Ephesus. Once more tongues accompanied the gift of the Holy Spirit. “And when Paul had laid hands on them, the Holy Spirit came upon them, and they spoke with tongues and prophesied” (Acts 19.6). However, when Peter and John ministered at Samaria, the Holy Spirit was given again, but this time nothing is mentioned about tongues. “Then they laid hands on them, and they received the Holy Spirit” (Acts 8.17). Verses 18 and 19 say that an observer, Simon the Sorcerer, “saw” the reception of the Spirit by the Samaritans, and whatever he witnessed motivated him to offer money to purchase the same ability to bestow the Spirit. It’s speculated that he probably saw them speaking in tongues.

The fifth century church father, Augustine of Hippo, was very insightful about the beliefs held by the early church regarding speaking in tongues and supported this view. From his comments about Acts 8.17-19, it was his assumption, due to his own experience in such matters, that Simon must have seen the Samaritans speaking in tongues. Augustine wrote, “We still do what the apostles did when they laid hands on the Samaritans and called down the Holy Spirit on them by laying on of hands. It is expected that new converts should speak with new tongues.”¹

Most Pentecostals and Charismatics generally agree that the baptism with the Holy Spirit is evidenced by speaking in tongues, and is separate and distinct from the birth of the Spirit (John 3.7), which occurs when faith is placed in Christ for salvation.

Furthermore, they believe that speaking in tongues is involved in three distinct functions: (1) As the initial, physical evidence of the baptism with the Holy Spirit (Acts 10.46), (2) as a spiritual prayer language which is used for personal edification (1 Corinthians 14.4, Romans 8.26-27), and (3) as a special utterance gift to the church, which when interpreted, serves to edify the body (1 Corinthians 12.10, 14.6). Paul indicated that not all persons would have the latter “gift of tongues” used to edify the church (1 Cor. 12:30), but desired for all believers to be able to speak in tongues for personal edification. “I wish you all spoke with tongues…” (1 Corinthians 14.5).

¹ Augustine, Vol. 4

Church custodian job description

CHURCH - PERSONAL

Job Title:                     Church Custodian

Reports To:                 Church Administrator

Position Status:         Full‐Time

Position Summary:

Responsible for the appearance, cleanliness, maintenance and security of the building and grounds of the

Church

Job Responsibilities and Duties:

Keep the building clean, attractive and well‐maintained, inside and out.

Maintain attractive grounds, performing basic functions as cutting grass, care of flowerbeds, shovelling snow, arranging for snow to be removed from the parking lot, and other maintenance duties.

Perform minor repairs, including but not limited to masonry, electrical systems, plumbing and immediate temporary repairs in an emergency.

Attend Building & Grounds Committee meeting and consult with the chair and Church Administrator as needed regarding policies, needed repairs and significant purchases.

Set up and take down the sanctuary and rooms as needed for classes and meetings.

Negotiate on needs assessment, finance and scheduling issues with contractors when maintenance and repair services are needed.

Supervise the part‐time grounds keeper, custodial assistant, and church members who volunteer for maintenance responsibilities.

Perform other tasks and responsibilities as assigned by the Church Administrator.

Job Skills and Requirements:

Knowledge of basic HVAC and mechanical functions of a large non‐residential building.

Good organizational and planning skills and an ability to delegate to other employees and volunteers.

Ability to negotiate knowledgably with contractors and vendors for facility needs.

Regular timely attendance during stated or negotiated hours.

Available and on call on a 24‐hour, seven day a week basis for emergencies.

Ability to communicate with staff and volunteers on facility needs and uses.

Ability to lift a minimum of 40 pounds and to have complete mobility in building and grounds activities.

Evaluation and Compensation:

The Church Custodian works directly under the Church Administrator and receives an annual performance evaluation. Compensation is reviewed annually.

I have read and received a copy of my job description. I understand this overrides anything I have been given or told in the past. I further understand that I’m expected to follow my job as outlined above and that if I have any questions concerning what is expected of me, I will speak with my immediate supervisor identified above.

Employee                                                                                                                    Date

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